UNIVERSITY     OF     CALIFORNIA       AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION 

BENJ.    IDE    WHEELER,    President 

THOMAS     FORSYTH     HUNT,    Dean   and    Director 


COLLEGE    OF    AGRICULTURE 


BERKELEY 


E.      VAN      NORMAN,      V  I  C  E- D  I  R  ECTO  R      AND       DEAf. 

University    Farm   Schooi 


CIRCULAR  No.  158 

December,  1916 


HOME  AND  FARM  CANNING 


By  W.  V.  CRUESS 


CONTENTS 


page 

A.  Introduction  1 

Causes  of  spoiling  2 

Methods  of  preserving   3 

Sterilization  by  heat  3 

Fractional  sterilization  4 

New     methods     of     sterilizing 

vegetables    4 

Sterilizing  fruits  at  low  tem- 
peratures    4 

Preservatives  5 

Methods  of  home  canning 5 


B.  Operations,  Materials, 

Equipment  6 

General  equipment  6 

Jars    7 

Cans  9 

Sanitary  cans    9 

Soldering    10 

Starting  the  torch  11 

Tinning  the  capping  steel  11 

Soldering  the  cap  11 

Tipping  13 

Preparation  of  materials  13 

Blanching  14 

Exhausting  15 

Syrups  15 

Brix  and  Balling  sugar  testers  15 

Baume  sugar  tester  15 

Strength  of  syrups  15 

Cane  and  beet  sugar  16 

Brines    16 

Pressure   sterilizers    17 

Marking    18 


.  Special  Directions  for  Vari- 
ous Fruits  

Apples 

Pears   

Peaches  

Apricots 

Plums  

Prunes 

Cherries  

Blackberries  

Loganberries    

Raspberries    

Strawberries    

Currants    

Cranberries 

Gooseberries  

Grapes 

Figs    

Rhubarb    

Pineapples    

Oranges  

Ripe  Olives 


19 
19 
21 
21 
22 
24 
24 
24 
21 
25 
25 
25 
26 
26 
26 
26 
26 
27 
27 
27 
9.1 


D.  Special  Directions  for  Vari- 
ous Vegetables  2s 

Artichokes    29 

Asparagus 29 

Green  beans  29 

Beets 30 

Carrots    30 

Sweet  corn  30 

Peas  3d 

Peppers,  Pimentos   and   Chiles  31 

Pumpkins    31 

Tomatoes    31 


Introduction 

For  several  years  requests  for  information  regarding  the  home 
canning  of  fruit  and  vegetables  have  been  received  at  the  station  with 
increasing  frequency.     To  supply  this  information  it  has  been  found 


necessary  to  test  the  various  methods  generally  recommended.  This 
has  been  done  both  with  the  appliances  used  in  most  homes  and  with 
a  special  canning  outfit  constructed  for  home  and  small-scale  operat- 
ions.1 In  the  course  of  this  work  several  useful  new  methods  have 
been  devised.  This  circular  is  intended  to  describe  these  new  methods 
and  also  to  give  general  information  asked  for  by  numerous  enquirers.2 
For  a  more  complete  discussion  of  the  principles  involved,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  correspondence  course  in  ' '  Canning  and  Preserving, ' ' 
given  by  the  Division  of  Agricultural  Education  of  the  University  of 
California. 

A  large  quantity  of  fruits  and  vegetables  goes  to  waste  every  year 
or  is  sold  at  prices  which  return  little  profit.  Much  of  this,  while  un- 
suited  to  the  special  requirements  of  the  commercial  cannery  or  drier, 
is  well  adapted  for  home  use  if  properly  canned.  The  quality  may 
be  as  good  or  better  than  that  of  the  product  of  the  commercial  can- 
neries, if  put  up  with  the  proper  knowledge  and  care.  It  is  often 
possible  to  find  a  limited  market  for  home  products  of  this  kind  at 
profitable  prices. 

Local  and  private  markets  are  usually  the  most  satisfactory  for 
the  home  or  farm  canner.  He  will  seldom  find  it  profitable  to  sell  on 
the  general  market  through  jobbers  in  competition  with  the  commercial 
canneries.  With  careful  attention  to  all  the  details  of  the  work  and 
a  little  business  ability  it  will  often  be  possible  to  make  the  home 
canning  outfit  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  orchard  and  garden,  and  much 
of  the  work  will  be  found  agreeable  and  profitable  by  the  women  of 
the  household. 

Causes  of  Spoiling. — The  principal  aim  of  canning  is  to  prevent  the 
material  from  spoiling.  Spoiling  is  not  due  directly  to  the  action  of 
air  or  of  heat.  It  is  not  a  simple  chemical  nor  physical  change. 
When  vegetable  matters  ferment,  decay  or  turn  sour,  it  is  because 
of  the  growth  of  certain  microscopic,  living  organisms  or  "germs." 
These  all  belong  to  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  are  divided  into  three 
groups :  molds,  yeasts,  and  bacteria.  Familiar  examples  of  each  group 
are  the  blue-green  mold  of  spoiled  fruits,  the  yeast  used  in  bread- 
making,  and  the  bacteria  of  the  scum  and  ' '  mother ' '  of  vinegar.  What 
we  see  in  compressed  yeast,  for  instance,  is  simply  a  mass  consisting 
of  millions  of  germs.  Individual  germs  are  too  minute  to  be  seen 
without  a  microscope.  Their  activities  cause  the  molding  of  jellies, 
the  swelling  and  souring  of  canned  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  the 
ptomains  of  canned  meats.  The  character  of  the  material  largely 
determines  which  type  of  spoiling  will  occur.     Acidity  is  favorable 


to  yeasts  and  molds.  Fruits  may  therefore  spoil  by  yeast  fermentation 
or  become  moldy.  Bacteria  prefer  a  medium  with  little  or  no  acid. 
When  vegetables  decay  it  is  therefore  usually  due  to  the  action  of 
bacteria.  Neither  fruits  nor  acid  vegetables  are  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  the  bacteria  which  produce  the  poisonous  ptomains  some- 
times found  in  spoiled  meats. 

Methods  of  Preserving. — The  micro-organisms  which  cause  spoiling 
come  from  the  air  or  from  the  surfaces  with  which  the  material  comes 
in  contact.  They  can  no  more  develop  from  non-living  matter  than 
wheat  can  appear  spontaneously  in  soil  devoid  of  wheat  seed.  In 
food  preservation,  we  are  dealing  with  living  organisms,  whose  activi- 
ties can  be  prevented  in  one  of  two  ways :  We  may  kill  all  the  germs 
present  by  heat  or  other  means  and  prevent  the  entrance  of  all 
others,  or  we  may  make  the  conditions  so  unfavorable  to  the  germs 
that  they  cannot  grow  or  do  any  damage.  The  latter  way  is  followed 
when  we  impregnate  meat  with  so  much  salt  that  bacteria  cannot 
grow,  or  add  so  much  sugar  to  jam  that  yeast  cannot  multiply.  The 
heat  method  is  utilized  in  most  methods  of  canning. 

Sterilization  by  Heat. — The  killing  of  all  germs  present  is  called 
sterilization.  In  canning,  this  is  accomplished  by  heating.  The 
material  to  be  preserved  is  placed  in  a  vessel,  jar,  or  can,  in  which  it 
is  sealed  hermetically,  i.e.,  made  air-tight.  It  is  then  heated  to  a 
temperature  fatal  to  all  the  germs  it  contains.  No  spoiling  can  then 
take  place  until  the  vessel  is  opened,  as  there  are  no  means  by  which 
germs  can  enter. 

Molds  and  yeasts,  as  they  occur  on  fruit  and  vegetables,  are 
quickly  killed  at  temperatures  several  degrees  below  212°  P.,  the  boil- 
ing point  of  water.  In  most  cases,  in  fact,  they  are  killed  at  tempera- 
tures of  between  150°  F.  and  165°  F.  On  the  other  hand,  bacteria 
occurring  on  vegetables  are  much  harder  to  kill,  many  of  them  with- 
standing the  temperature  of  boiling  water  for  an  hour  or  more. 
These  bacteria  owe  their  astonishing  resistance  to  the  presence  of 
spores.  Spores  are  to  bacteria  what  seeds  are  to  higher  plants  and  are 
resistant  for  the  same  reasons,  viz.,  because  of  their  thick,  tough  coats 
and  low  water  content. 

These  bacteria,  with  resistant  spores,  probably  occur  also  on  fruits, 
but  it  is  not  necessary  to  kill  them  in  this  case,  as  they  are  very  sensi- 
tive to  acidity  and  therefore  cannot  grow  in  fruit  juices.  With  vege- 
tables the  case  is  different.  These,  with  the  exception  of  tomatoes,  have 
little  or  no  acidity  and  are  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  the  heat- 
resistant  bacteria.    To  sterilize  vegetables  it  is  therefore  usual  to  heat 


the  sealed  cans  to  temperatures  above  212°  F.  The  temperature  can 
be  raised  to  212°  F.  by  placing  the  sealed  cans  in  an  open  tank  or  pot 
containing  boiling  water.  Under  these  conditions  no  higher  tempera- 
ture can  be  reached,  as  the  evolving  steam  removes  the  excess  of  heat 
as  fast  as  it  is  applied.  In  a  closed  space  where  the  steam  cannot 
escape,  however,  higher  temperatures  can  be  obtained.  As  the  tem- 
perature rises  the  pressure  increases.  In  canning  vegetables,  pressures 
f  £  three  to  fifteen  pounds  to  the  square  inch  are  generally  used.  This 
corresponds  to  temperatures  of  221.3°  F.  to  249.1°  F. ;  the  higher  the 
pressure  the  higher  the  temperature. 

Temperatures  of  230°  F.  and  over  can  also  be  obtained  by  adding 
ordinary  salt  or  calcium  chloride  to  the  water  in  which  the  sealed  cans 
are  heated.    The  salt  raises  the  boiling  point  of  the  water. 

Fractional  sterilization. — Vegetables  may  also  be  sterilized  by  re- 
peated heatings  to  2.12°  F.  If  heated  to  this  temperature  the  ordinary 
bacteria  are  killed  and  the  spores  are  softened  so  that  they  sprout 
easily  and  rapidly.  If  the  heating  is  repeated  therefore  twenty-four 
or  forty-eight  hours  later  the  sprouted  spores  are  killed.  A  third 
heating  after  a  similar  interval  usually  destroys  all  spores. 

New  methods  of  sterilizing  vegetables. — The  high  temperatures  or 
repeated  heatings  used  in  the  canning  of  vegetables  are  not  only 
troublesome  and  expensive,  but  injurious  to  the  flavor  and  texture. 
Experiments  in  the  zymological  laboratory  have  developed  a  very 
simple  and  certain  way  of  sterilizing  vegetables  as  easily  as  fruit. 
This  consists  in  the  addition  of  a  little  acid  to  the  liquid  in  which 
they  are  canned.  It  was  found  that  peas  heated  to  212°  F.  in  a  brine 
acidified  by  the  addition  of  five  ounces  of  lemon  juice  to  every  gallon, 
kept  perfectly,  while  peas  heated  in  the  same  brine  without  lemon 
juice  spoiled.  The  same  results  were  obtained  with  beans,  pumpkins, 
beets,  turnips,  artichokes  and  asparagus.  Large  quantities  of  these 
vegetables  are  lost  by  " spoilage"  in  the  commercial  canneries.  The 
flavor  of  the  vegetables  sterilized  at  the  low  temperature  was  much 
superior  to  that  of  those  sterilized  under  pressure. 

The  common  household  practise  of  canning  corn  and  tomatoes 
together  owes  its  efficacy  to  the  same  principle.  Corn  alone  is  very 
difficult  to  sterilize,  owing  to  its  lack  of  acidity.  This  lack  is  supplied 
by  the  tomatoes  and  the  mixture  is  easily  preserved  by  ordinary 
heating.  Doubtless  other  wholesome  acids,  such  as  vinegar,  citric, 
or  tartaric  acid,  could  be  used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  amount 
of  acid  used  is  small  and  improves  rather  than  injures  the  flavor. 

Sterilizing  fruits  at  low  temperatures. — Heating  fruit  to  212°  F. 
always  changes  more  or  less  the  flavor,  texture  and  appearance.     In 


a  few  cases,  the  change  of  flavor,  due  to  cooking,  may  be  an  improve- 
ment, but  in  most  cases  it  is  desirable  to  retain  as  much  of  the  original 
character  of  the  fruit  as  possible.  This  is  accomplished  by  careful 
handling  and  by  heating  to  the  lowest  temperature  that  will  insure 
sterilization.  Experiments  continued  for  two  years  at  the  zymo- 
logical  laboratory  have  shown  that  certain  fruits  can  be  safely  steril- 
ized at  temperatures  of  from  165°  F.  to  175°  P.  Peaches,  apricots, 
pears,  cherries,  and  berries  have  been  successfully  preserved  after 
sterilizing  at  these  temperatures,  and  have  retained  much  more  per- 
fectly the  texture  and  flavor  of  the  fresh  fruit  than  when  subjected  to 
the  higher  temperatures  generally  used  in  canning.  The  improvement 
with  peaches  was  particularly  marked. 

In  this  method  the  cans  are  filled  with  fruit  in  a  fairly  heavy 
syrup — 30°-50°  Bal — (See  page  16)  ;  exhausted  three  minutes  at 
150°  F. ;  tipped  and  placed  in  hot  water  kept  at  175°  F.  They  are 
left  in  this  water  for  ten  to  twenty  minutes  with  occasional  stirring 
to  hasten  the  penetration  of  the  heat.  They  are  then  removed  and 
allowed  to  cool. 

Preservatives. — Food  materials  can  be  prevented  from  spoiling 
by  the  use  of  certain  substances  known  as  preservatives.  Some  of 
these  are  injurious  to  health  and  forbidden  by  the  pure-food  laws. 
Others  are  not  encouraged  by  pure  food  laws,  because  they  are  used 
by  unscrupulous  manufacturers  to  cover  up  defective  materials  or 
careless  methods  of  manufacture. 

Certain  preservatives,  however,  are  useful  and  permissible.  For 
fruits,  sugar  is  the  most  commonly  used.  If  the  sugar  content  of 
fruit  juice,  jelly  or  jam  is  raised  to  65°  Bal.  by  evaporating  part  of 
the  water,  or  by  adding  sugar,  they  become  unsuitable  to  the  growth 
of  micro-organisms  and  will  keep  even  in  open  vessels.  This  is  why 
dried  fruit  does  not  spoil  and  why  jam  must  be  made  sweet. 

For  vegetables,  salt  is  extensively  used,  as  in  preserving  olives  in 
barrels  and  in  keeping  certain  types  of  pickles.  Vinegar  and  spices 
are  used  in  the  same  way.  Sometimes  a  combination  of  the  effects 
of  heat  sterilization  and  preservatives  is  used  as  in  the  new  method 
of  preserving  vegetables  described  above.  Heating  to  212°  F.  destroys 
the  molds  and  yeasts  and  the  addition  of  citric  acid  prevents  the 
growth  of  bacteria. 

Methods  of  Home  Canning. — The  principles  and  theory  of  canning 
are  the  same  whatever  the  scale  on  which  it  is  done.  The  differences 
are  only  in  the  mechanical  details  of  the  methods  of  applying  these 
principles. 


There  are  two  general  methods  in  use.  In  one,  known  as  the  ' '  Hot- 
pack  method,"  the  material  is  cooked  in  open  pots  and  poured  while 
hot  into  the  cans,  together  with  the  hot  brine  or  syrup.  The  cans 
are  sealed  immediately  and  sterilized.  In  the  other,  the  "Cold-pack 
method,"  the  freshly  prepared  material  is  placed  cold  in  the  cans 
and  then  covered  with  the  hot  syrup  or  brine,  sealed  and  sterilized. 
The  material  is  always  hot  when  the  cans  are  sealed.  Only  the  cold- 
pack  method  is  described  here,  as  it  is  generally  the  best,  especially 
for  home  use. 


a  o  c  a  e  f  g 

Fig.  1. — Common  kitchen  utensils  useful  in  home  canning:  (a)  Dishpan  for 
peeling  receptacle,  etc.;  (6)  pots  of  various  sizes;  (c)  small  scale;  (d)  meas- 
uring cup;  (e)  peeling  knives,  spoons,  and  small  utensils;  (f)  five-gallon  pot 
for  syrup;    (g)   collander  or  strainer. 


OPERATIONS,    MATERIALS   AND    EQUIPMENT 

General  equipment. — Most  of  the  utensils  and  materials  needed  in 
home-canning  are  to  be  found  in  all  kitchens.  They  include  a  good 
stove,  or  other  means  of  heating,  a  large  table  for  the  preparation  of 
materials,  a  sink  and  good  supply  of  water,  various  agateware  pots, 
saucepans,  and  buckets,  large  cooking  spoons,  and  a  sufficient  supply 
of  sugar  and  salt.  To  these  should  be  added  a  good  thermometer, 
suitable  for  placing  in  liquids,  and  reading  from  at  least  32°  F.  to 
250°  F.  (cost,  about  $1.00).  A  Balling  or  Brix  saccharometer  or 
sugar  tester  is  also  very  useful.  It  should  read  from  0  per  cent  to 
70  per  cent  and  costs  about  75  cents.    For  use  with  this  will  be  needed 


a  tin  cylinder  to  hold  the  liquids  to  be  tested.  It  should  be  about 
V/2  inches  in  diameter  and  about  12  inches  long.  (See  page  14.) 
The  thermometer  and  saccharometer  can  be  obtained  through  a  drug 
store. 

Other  necessary  or  desirable  materials  are  described  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs.  If  the  canning  is  to  be  done  on  a  somewhat  larger 
scale  for  the  market  it  will  often  be  advisable  to  purchase  a  factory- 
made  outfit  which  may  be  obtained  in  various  sizes. 

Jars. — Glass  jars  are  preferable  to  tin  cans  for  home  use.  They 
can  be  used  repeatedly;  they  present  no  danger  from  tin  poisoning 
and  the  contents  are  more  attractive  in  flavor  and  appearance.  Their 
greater  initial  cost  is  offset  by  these  advantages.  Where  the  product 
is  to  be  sold,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  use  cans  unless  special  high 
quality  is  demanded  and  a  price  sufficient  to  cover  the  extra  cost  of 
jars  can  be  obtained.  One  commercial  cannery  in  California  owing 
its  success  to  the  high  quality  of  its  fruits  preserves  them  principally 
in  glass. 

Glass  jars  are  to  be  found  in  a  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes  and  with 
various  methods  of  hermetic  sealing.  The  sizes  most  used  are  pints 
and  quarts  and  to  a  smaller  extent  half-gallons.  The  only  important 
variation  in  shape  is  the  width  of  the  mouth  which  may  be  as  wide 
as  the  jar  or  only  about  half  its  width.  The  commonest  method  of 
sealing  is  by  means  of  a  rubber  ring  which  fits  between  the  cover  and 
the  top  of  the  jar. 

In  the  Mason  jar  and  its  various  modifications  the  cover  is  a  screw 
cap  which  makes  an  hermetic  joint  when  screwed  down  on  the  rubber 
ring.  In  the  ordinary  form  this  cap  is  of  zinc  with  a  porcelain  lining. 
This  is  the  commonest  and  cheapest  form.  Wide-mouth  Mason  jars 
are  now  made  which  are  very  convenient  for  large  fruits.  They  have 
enamelled  metal  caps  which  are  often  difficult  to  remove  and  may  be 
broken  in  opening  the  jar. 

In  another  common  form,  of  which  the  Atlas  is  an  example,  the 
cover  is  a  glass  disc  held  in  place  and  pressed  down  on  the  rubber 
by  means  of  a  strong  wire  clamp.  After  the  fruit  cools  the  clamp 
may  be  removed  and  the  cover  will  be  held  in  place  by  the  vacuum. 
This  affords  a  convenient  means  of  detecting  spoiled  jars.  If  there 
is  any  fermentation  of  the  fruit  the  gas  formed  will  fill  the  vacuum 
and  the  cap  will  be  loosened.  This  is  a  very  convenient  and  durable 
form  of  cover  and  there  are  no  metal  parts  in  contact  with  the  fruit. 

Vacuum  Seal  glass  jars  are  used  in  jelly  and  preserve  factories. 
They  have  an  enameled  metal  cap  resting  on  a  heavy,  soft  rubber  ring 
and  held  in  place  by  a  vacuum  inside  the  jar.     This  vacuum  is  pro- 


8 

duced  in  factories  by  means  of  an  expensive  machine.  For  home  use 
these  jars  may  be  sealed  by  forcing  the  caps  on  by  hand,  while  the 
contents  are  hot.  On  cooling,  a  vacuum  is  produced  which  holds 
the  caps  firmly  in  place. 

In  all  cases  where  rubber  is  used  in  sealing  it  must  be  specially 
treated,  as  it  will  otherwise  give  a  disagreeable  taste  to  the  food. 
Fruit  and  vegetables  are  often  completely  spoiled  by  this  taste.  It 
can  be  avoided  by  thoroughly  treating  the  rubbers  with  a  hot  alkaline, 
followed  by  a  hot  acid  solution.  They  are  first  boiled  for  several 
hours  in  water  made  alkaline  with  two  or  three  tablespoonfuls  of 
washing  soda  to  the  gallon.    They  are  then  rinsed  and  boiled  a  second 


a  b  c  d  e 

Fig.  2. — Types  of  jars  used  in  home  canning:  (a)  Removable  clamp  and  glass 
top;  (&)  fixed  clamp  and  removable  glass  top;  (c)  lacquered  metal  clamp  top; 
(d)  wide  mouth  screw  top  of  lacquered  metal;  (e)  ordinary  narrow  mouth  screw 
top,  with  porcelain  or  glass-line  cap. 


time  in  water  made  slightly  acid  with  lemon  juice  or  vinegar.  A 
third  short  boiling  in  plain  water  fits  them  for  use. 

In  some  forms  of  jars,  the  rubber  ring  is  replaced  by  a  ring  or 
disk  of  pasteboard  treated  or  varnished.  These  are  not  commonly 
used  and  are  less  generally  suitable. 

A  commoner  type  that  avoids  the  use  of  rubber  is  the  Economy  jar 
and  its  modifications.  The  cover  is  an  enameled  metal  disc  around 
the  end  of  which  runs  a  small  groove  filled  with  a  hard  wax-like 
compound.  "When  the  jar  and  its  contents  are  heated  this  compound 
melts  and  seals  the  cover  to  the  jar  when  it  cools  and  hardens.  A 
metal  spring  holds  the  cover  in  place  until  the  compound  hardens  and 
may  then  be  removed. 


Cans. — There  are  three  general  types  of  cans  used  for  fruit  and 
vegetables — the  "wax-top,"  the  "solder-top,"  and  the  "sanitary." 

With  the  "wax-top,"  the  cover  is  sealed  on  by  means  of  a  ring 
of  hot  sealing- Avax.  It  is  suitable  for  use  with  fruits  and  tomatoes, 
but  it  is  not  satisfactory  for  most  vegetables,  which  require  high 
temperatures  necessary.  They  are  easily  manipulated  and  require  no 
special  equipment. 

"Solder-top"  or  "stud-hole"  cans  with  the  necessary  soldering 
tools  are  used  in  the  factory-made  home  canning  outfits  and  can  be 
used  with  any  outfit.  The  top  of  the  can  has  a  circular  opening 
varying  in  width  with  the  size  and  type  of  cans.     After  filling  the 


I 

■  -«S^d^^^^               ~^ 

II  1   1 

ll 

a  b  c  d  e  f  g 

Fig.  3. — Types  of  cans  used  in  home  canning:  (a)  No.  10  or  gallon  solder  top 
can;  (6)  No.  3  solder  top  can;  (c)  No.  2  solder  top  can;  (d)  No.  1  tall  solder 
top  can;  (e)  No.  2%  square  tall  solder  top  can  for  asparagus;  (/)  small  square 
solder    top    can    for    asparagus;     (g)    wax    top    can. 


can,  this  opening  is  closed  by  soldering  on  a  tin  disc  This  disc  is 
usually  perforated  with  a  small  hole  to  allow  steam  to  escape  during 
the  preliminary  heating.  This  hole  must  be  closed  with  solder  before 
the  final  sterilization. 

"Sanitary-cans"  used  in  large  canneries  are  not  sealed  with  solder. 
The  cover  or  cap  is  "crimped"  on  by  means  of  a  special  machine. 
There  is  a  "composition"  coating  on  the  cap  where  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  the  can  which  makes  the  sealing  doubly  sure.  The  neces- 
sary machine  is  expensive  and  not  suited  for  home  use.  A  cheap 
hand-power  machine  can  be  obtained,  but  according  to  Dr.  Bitting 
of  the  National  Canners'  Laboratory,  its  work  is  not  satisfactory. 

Cans  are  to  be  obtained  which  are  coated  inside  with  a  protective 
enamel.  These  are  suitable  for  very  acid  fruits,  rhubarb  and  beets, 
as  they  minimize  the  action  of  the  acids  on  the  tin. 


10 

The  capacity  and  dimensions  of  the  cans  most  used  for  fruit  and 
vegetables  are  given  in  the  following  table : 

Dimensions  and  Capacity  of  Usual  Cans 


Sanitary 

Solder 

Top 

Number 

Height             Diameter 

Capacity 

Height 

Diameter 

1 

2 

2i/2 
3 
10 

4  23/8 

*¥>              3% 

4ii/i6               4 

5  4i/4 

6i%6              61/s 

11.6 
21.3 
31.2 
35.0 
107.0 

4 

4%6 
4% 

4% 

2U/16 

3% 
4 

4%6 

ey4 

Outside  c 

imensions  in  inches. 

Capacity 

in 

fluid  ounces. 

Fig.  4. — Gasoline  torch  used  in  heating  capping  and  tipping  steels:  (a) 
Inlet  for  gasoline;    (b)   burner  cock;    (c)    air  pump. 

In  commercial  canning,  No.  2y2  cans  are  commonly  used  for  fruits 
and  tomatoes,  No.  2  for  peas,  beans  and  corn,  and  square  No.  2  for 
asparagus.  Apples  and  "pie"  grades  of  fruit  are  usually  put  in 
No.  3  or  No.  10  cans.  Many  other  sizes  and  shapes  are  used  for 
special  purposes. 

Soldering  Material. — To  fasten  the  caps  on  the  cans,  a  "capping 
steel"  is  needed.  This  is  a  cylindrical  soldering  iron  with  a  concave 
end  to  fit  over  the  cap  with  which  it  must  correspond  in  size.  Solder- 
hemmed  caps  are  furnished  with  a  ring  of  solder.  Their  use  saves 
much  time,  labor  and  solder.  The  small  vent  hole  is  sealed  with  a 
"tipping -steel"  which  is  a  small,  pointed  soldering  iron.     (See  fig.  5.) 


11 

In  order  to  make  a  good  union  between  the  solder  and  the  tin,  the 
surfaces  must  be  cleaned  with  a  "soldering  flux."  This  can  be  bought 
ready  for  use  or  can  be  prepared  as  follows:  Place  about  one  ounce 
of  zinc  in  half  a  tumbler  of  strong  muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid  and 
leave  until  bubbles  cease  to  come  off.  If  all  the  zinc  dissolves  add 
more  until  a  little  remains  after  all  bubbling  ceases.  The  solution 
is  then  strained  through  a  cloth.  It  will  keep  indefinitely  and  must 
be  diluted  with  an  equal  volume  of  water  before  using. 

A  gasoline  fire  pot  or  torch  of  the  type  used  by  plumbers  is  needed 
to  heat  the  soldering  irons.  One  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  4  or  smaller 
is  satisfactory. 

Starting  the  torch. — The  reservoir  of  the  torch  is  filled  about  three 
quarters  full  of  good  gasoline.  The  air  pump  is  screwed  into  place 
(see  Fig.  4c),  and  air  pumped  in  to  give  as  much  pressure  as  possible. 

The  cocks  of  the  two  burners  (see  b,  Fig.  4),  are  then  opened 
very  slightly  to  allow  a  little  gasoline  to  flow  out  and  wet  the  burners. 
They  are  then  closed  and  the  burners  heated  by  'burning  off  the 
gasoline.  This  process  is  repeated  once  or  twice  until  the  burners  are 
hot  enough  to  vaporize  the  gasoline  rapidly. 

When  the  burners  are  sufficiently  hot,  the  cocks  are  opened  a  little 
and  the  gasoline  lighted.  The  flame  should  burn  with  a  blue  color 
and  a  roaring  sound.     The  torch  is  then  ready  to  heat  the  steels. 

Tinning  the  capping  steel. — The  steel  is  heated  sufficiently  to  melt 
a  piece  of  solder  instantly,  but  not  to  burn  it.  The  bottom  of  the 
steel,  both  inside  and  out,  should  then  be  cleaned  by  filing  off  the  scale. 
It  is  then  dipped  quickly  into  a  little  of  the  soldering  flux  and  "tin- 
ned" by  applying  wire  solder  which  should  melt  rapidly  and  cover 
the  bottom  of  the  steel  with  a  bright  metallic  layer.  This  layer  should 
extend  to  about  one-half  an  inch  from  the  bottom.  The  steel  may 
also  be  tinned  by  filing  it  clean  while  hot  and  dipping  into  a  mixture 
of  sal  ammoniac  and  small  pieces  of  solder. 

This  process  need  not  be  repeated  until  the  steel  becomes  accident- 
ally too  hot  and  burns  off  the  ' '  tinning. ' '  If  the  steel  is  wiped  occasion- 
ally wThile  hot  with  a  coarse  cloth  and  dipped  regularly  into  the  solder- 
ing flux  wrhen  used  the  coating  should  last  indefinitely. 

Soldering  the  Cap. — The  grooves  around  the  tops  of  the  filled  cans 
are  wiped  to  clean  them  from  juice  and  pieces  of  fruit  and  the  caps 
applied.  A  brush  dipped  in  solder  flux  is  then  passed  around  the 
groove.  The  capping  steel,  heated  until  it  will  melt  solder  instantly, 
is  cleaned  by  dipping  in  solder  flux  and  applied  immediately  to  the 
groove  of  the  can.  If  plain  caps  are  used,  a  little  solder  is  melted 
around  the  bottom  of  the  steel  and  allowed  to  run  into  the  groove. 


Fig.  5. — Sealing  a  solder  top  can.     (For  description  see  opposite  page.) 


13 

Only  a  little  is  necessary.  If  solder  hemmed  caps  are  used  no  other 
solder  is  needed.  The  steel  is  turned  a  few  times  to  distribute  the 
melted  solder  evenly  in  the  groove  and  then  slightly  raised  while 
pressing  down  on  the  center  rod  for  an  instant  until  the  solder  hardens. 
(See  Fig.  5.) 

Tipping. — This  term  means  the  closing  of  the  small  vent  hole 
in  the  top  of  the  can  with  a  drop  of  solder.  It  is  done  while  the 
contents  are  hot  and  before  sterilizing.  The  edges  of  the  holes  are 
cleaned  with  a  brush  dipped  in  solder  flux.  Very  little  must  be  used 
or  it  will  run  into  the  can  and  injure  the  contents.  After  applying 
the  flux,  the  properly  tinned  and  heated  tipping  steel  is  applied  to  the 


Fig.  6. — Knives  used  in  canning:    (a)  Peeling  knife;   (h)   cutting  knife;   (c) 
peach  pitting  spoon;   (d)  pear  coring  knife. 

hole  and  touched  with  a  piece  of  wire  solder.  This  causes  a  small 
drop  of  melted  solder  to  run  to  the  point  where  it  closes  the  hole  and 
is  smoothed  by  a  quick  twist  of  the  steel.     (See  Fig.  5.) 

Preparation  of  material. — Nearly  all  fruits  and  vegetables  require 
some   kind    of   preparatory   treatment   before    canning.      They   may 


Pig.  5. — Sealing  a  solder  top  can. 

1.  Wipe  the  juice  and  syrup  from  the  groove. 

2.  Apply  cap  and  wipe  the  groove  with  a  brush   dipped  in  soldering  fluid. 

3.  Place  clean  hot  capping  steel  on  can  and  melt  a  little  solder  into  groove. 

4.  Turn  the  hot  steel  to  distribute  the  solder. 

5.  Press  down  on  center  rod,  and  raise  steel  a  few  seconds  to  allow  solder 
to  harden. 

6.  After  exhausting  can  wipe  vent  hole  and  seal  vent  with  a  drop  of  solder. 


14 


require  washing,  sizing,  sorting  for  color  or  ripeness,  peeling,  pitting, 
coring  or  slicing.  Each  requires  special  treatment  which  is  described 
later.  In  some  cases  special  machines  or  tools  are  necessary.  Some 
simple  tools  generally  useful  are  shown  in  Fig.  6.  These  are  (a)  a 
knife  fitted  with  a  guard  to  prevent  excessive  waste  of  pulp  in  peeling, 
and  a  broad  knife  (b)  for  cutting  and  slicing.  For  clingstone  peaches 
a  special  spoon  (c)  with  sharp  edges  is  used.  This  is  forced  into  the 
peach  from  the  stem  end  and  given  a  rotary  motion  which  cuts  the 
pit  from  the  flesh  and  permits  its  extraction.  A  curved  spoon  or 
knife   (d)  is  used  for  removing  the  cores  of  halved  pears. 


Fig.  7. — Tin  cylinder,  thermometer,  and  Balling  sugar  tester.  The  tester 
in  the  cylinder  of  syrup  is  read  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  In  the  above 
case,  this  is  approximately  12  per  cent. 


Blanching. — Certain  vegetables  should  be  '  *  blanched ' '  or  parboiled 
before  canning.  This  is  done  by  dipping  them  in  boiling  water.  A 
wire  screen  basket  or  a  frying  basket,  such  as  is  used  in  cooking 
doughnuts,  will  serve  to  hold  the  vegetables  while  they  are  dipped 
in   a   large   cooking  pot   containing  boiling   water.      This   treatment 


15 

improves  the  quality,  by  removing  slimy  matters  and  lessening  the 
astringent  taste  of  the  skins.  It  is  necessary  with  asparagus  to  remove 
bitterness. 

Exhausting. — This  process  is  necessary  with  nearly  all  air-tight 
containers  which  are  to  be  sterilized  by  heat.  It  consists  of  a  pre- 
liminary heating  before  sealing  and  before  the  final  sterilization.  It 
results  in  expanding  the  air  inside  the  container  and  thus  driving 
out  most  of  it.  When  the  sealed  container  and  its  contents  cool,  the 
small  amount  of  air  still  enclosed  contracts  and  produces  a  partial 
vacuum.  If  cans  are  sealed  while  the  contents  are  cool  they  will 
swell  on  heating,  owing  to  the  expansion  of  the  heated  air.  Exhaus- 
tion is  also  necessary  with  jars.  If  the  covers  are  screwed  or  clamped 
on,  the  expanding  air  may  break  the  glass.  If  they  simply  rest  on 
the  rubber  or  other  sealing  ring  the  vacuum  is  necessary  to  keep  them 
in  place. 

If  the  fruit  is  hot  when  placed  in  the  cans  or  jars  they  may  be 
sealed  and  sterilized  immediately  as  the  heat  will  exhaust  the  air  suf- 
ficiently. 

Syrup. — Fruits  are  canned  in  sugar  syrups  of  various  strengths 
or  concentrations.  In  general,  the  more  acid  fruits  require  the  most 
sugar.  The  appropriate  strengths  are  given  in  the  directions  for  can- 
ning the  various  fruits. 

Brix  or  Balling  sugar  testers. — Syrups  of  the  desired  strengths 
may  be  made  up  by  weighing  the  sugar  and  measuring  the  water, 
or  by  adding  sugar  to  the  water  until  the  desired  strength  is  indicated 
by  the  sugar  tester  or  hydrometer.  This  is  sometimes  called  a  sac- 
charometer  and  the  commonest  forms  are  the  Brix  and  the  Balling. 
The  hydrometer  is  floated  in  the  syrup  contained  in  a  tall,  narrow 
metal  or  glass  cylinder  and  the  per  cent  of  sugar  read  off  from  the 
scale  at  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  If  the  syrup  is  cold  the  reading 
is  correct  enough  for  the  purpose,  but  if  very  hot  the  reading  may 
be  4  per  cent  too  high.     (See  Fig.  7.) 

Baume  sugar  tester. — This  is  a  hydrometer  similar  in  form  to  the 
Brix,  differing  only  in  the  scale,  which  reads  in  degrees  instead  of  per 
rents.  The  degrees  may  be  multiplied  by  two  to  give  the  per  cent 
approximately. 

Strengths  of  Syrup. — By  carefully  measuring  the  sugar  and  water, 
syrups  of  any  desired  strengths  can  be  made  up.  The  following  table 
shows  the  relation  between  the  sugar  per  cent,  the  Baume  degree  and 
the  proportion  of  sugar  and  water : 


16 


Sugar  Syrups 

Per  cent  of  sugar  Baume 

(Brix  or  Balling)  Degrees 

5  2.8 

10  5.5 

15  8.3 

20  11.1 

25  '. 13.8 

30  16.5 

35  19.2 

40  21.9 

45  24.6 

50  27.2 

55  29.8 

60  32.4 

65  34.9 


Weii 

jht  of  sugar 

Per  1 

gal. 

of  water 

Olbs. 

7  oz. 

0 

15 

1 

8 

2 

2 

2 

13 

3 

10 

4 

7 

5 

10 

6 

14 

8 

6 

10 

4 

12 

10 

15 

11 

In  making  up  syrups  from  this  table,  the  weight  of  sugar  in  the 
last  column  opposite  the  desired  per  cent  or  degree  is  added  to  each 
gallon  of  water  and  dissolved  by  warming  and  stirring.  The  volume 
of  syrup  obtained  is  greater  than  that  of  the  water  used.  The  increase 
of  volume  is  very  slight  with  syrups  of  5  per  cent  to  15  per  cent, 
but  is  greater  with  more  concentrated  syrups;  15  pounds  11  ounces 
of  sugar  and  one  gallon  of  water  giving  nearly  two  gallons  of  syrup 
at  65  per  cent. 

Cane  and  Beet  Sugar. — In  numerous  tests  made  by  Dr.  Bitting  of 
the  National  Canner's  Laboratory,  by  G.  W.  Shaw,  formerly  of  the 
California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station,  by  the  Enology  Labora- 
tory, and  by  others,  beet  sugar  was  found  to  give  results  equal  to  those 
of  cane  sugar.  The  prejudice  against  beet  sugar  may  have  been  war- 
ranted when  the  methods  of  manufacture  were  crude,  but  it  can  now 
be  produced  in  as  pure  a  state  as  cane  sugar  with  which  it  is  identical 
chemically. 

Brines. — Most  vegetables  are  canned  in  a  light  brine  with  or  with- 
out addition  of  a  small  amount  of  sugar.  The  desired  strength  of  brine 
is  obtained  by  adding  a  weighed  amount  of  salt  to  a  measured  volume 
of  water.  The  number  of  ounces  of  salt  to  be  added  to  a  gallon  of 
water  for  brines  of  various  concentrations  is  given  in  the  following 
table : 

Brines 

Per  cent  of  Ounces  of  salt 

salt  in  brine  per  gal  &f  water 

1  1% 

2  2% 

3  4 

4  5% 

5  6% 

10  14% 

15  22% 


17 

Sterilizers.— A  sterilizer  is  a  covered  vessel  in  which  the  filled  cans 
or  jars  are  heated  to  the  degree  and  for  the  time  necessary  to  sterilize 
their  contents.  The  sterilizer  containing  the  cans  and  several  inches 
of  water  is  placed  on  a  stove,  and  steam  generated  by  boiling  the  water 
heats  the  cans.  The  cover  must  be  sufficiently  close  to  insure  steam 
heat  in  all  parts  of  the  vessel,  but  must  not  be  too  tight,  or  the  steam 
pressure  will  cause  the  vessel  to  burst.  An  ordinary  wash  boiler 
fitting  the  top  of  a  kitchen  stove  can  be  made  to  serve  as  a  very  satis- 
factory home  sterilizer.  A  piece  of  heavy  wire  screen  of  half-inch 
mesh  and  cut  to  fit  should  be  placed  in  the  bottom.    This  will  serve  to 


Fig.  8.— Apparatus  used  for  blanching  vegetables  and  sterilizing  fruits  and 
vegetables,  (a)  Blanching  basket  and  pot;  (ft)  wash  boiler  sterilizer,  showing 
screen  used  as  false  bottom. 


keep  the  jars  from  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the  boiler,  where  they 
might  break  if  too  close  with  the  fire.     (See  Fig.  8.) 

The  water  in  the  boiler  should  reach  to  within  a  couple  of  inches  of 
the  top  of  the  jars.  Cans  may  be  placed  in  two  or  more  tiers,  separated 
and  supported  by  slat  gratings  which  allow  the  steam  to  penetrate  to 
all  parts  of  every  can.  The  cover  of  the  boiler  should  fit  snugly  in 
order  that  the  steam  will  be  confined  and  heat  the  upper  part  of  the 
sterilizer  to  the  boiling  temperature. 

Pressure  Sterilizers. — Certain  vegetables  are  hard  to  sterilize  except 
at  very  high  temperatures.  Sterilizers  using  pressure  steam  will  attain 
these  temperatures  and  the  cheapest  forms  can  be  bought  for  about 
ten   dollars.      For   family   use   these    are   unnecessary,    the   methods 


18 

described  on  page  4  being  more  convenient,  as  they  require  no  special 
equipment. 

Where  vegetables  are  to  be  canned  for  sale  it  will  usually  pay  to 
obtain  a  pressure  cooker,  as  they  are  fairly  easy  to  operate.  Directions 
for  operating  accompany  the  outfits. 

The  pressure  cooker  is  fitted  with  steam  gauge,  thermometer,  re- 
lease cock  and  safety  valve,  and  with  weight  and  lever  to  regulate  the 
pressure.  In  using,  the  boiler  is  first  one-fifth  filled  with  hot  water. 
The  cans  filled,  capped  and  tipped  in  the  usual  way,  are  then  placed  in 
the  crate  and  lowered  into  the  boiler.  The  cover  of  the  cooker  is  now 
screwed  down,  but  the  release  cock  is  left  open.  Heat  is  then  applied 
until  steam  escapes  freely  from  the  open  cock.  This  cock  is  then  closed 
and  heating  continued  until  the  temperature  reaches  the  desired  point. 
At  this  point  the  safety  valve  should  be  set  for  the  corresponding 
pressure  (see  table).  At  the  same  time  the  release  cock  is  opened 
slightly,  so  as  to  allow  a  small  escape  of  excess  steam.  By  this 
means  the  temperature  can  be  regulated  very  exactly.  The  safety 
valve  will  open  and  relieve  the  pressure  if  the  tcmiperature  commences 
to  go  too  high  and  it  cannot  go  too  low  so  long  as  the  small  escape 
of  steam  continues  through  the  release  cock.  When  the  heating 
has  continued  for  the  required  time,  the  cooker  is  removed  from  the 
fire,  the  release  cock  opened,  and  when  the  pressure  has  fallen  to  0 
the  cans  are  removed  and  cooled  in  water,  or  the  steam  may  scald  the 
operator.  If  the  cooker  is  opened  before  the  pressure  has  fallen  to  0 
the  cans  jnay  burst.  The  larger  outfits  of  this  kind  are  equipped  with 
a  small  steam  boiler  for  heating,  and  three  or  more  cookers. 


TEMPERATURES    F.    CORRESPONDING    TO    LBS.    STEAM    PRESSURE 

Lbs.  press                     Deg.  F.            Lbs.  press  Deg.  F.  Lbs.  press                     Deg.  F. 

1  215.2  6  229.5  11  241.0 

2  218.3  7  231.9  12  243.1 

3  221.3  8  234  3  13  245.3 

4  224.2  9 236.6  14  247.3 

5  226.9  10  238.8  15  249.1 


Marking. — All  containers  should  be  plainly  marked  with  the  variety 
and  grade  of  the  product.  This  can  be  done  by  means  of  a  small  set 
of  rubber  stamps  and  ink,  such  as  that  used  by  canners,  which  will 
stand  hot  water.  They  may  also  be  marked  after  sterilization  with 
gummed  labels  or  wax  pencils  specially  made  for  writing  on  tin  and 
glass. 


19 


SPECIAL   DIRECTIONS   FOR   VARIOUS    FRUITS 

Apples. — Apples  are  canned  almost  exclusively  for  use  in  pies. 
Any  sound  fruit  will  do  for  this  purpose,  but  Californian  commercial 
canners  are  limited  largely  to  yellow  Bellflowers,  yellow  Newtowns,  and 
Gravensteins,  as  these  are  the  chief  varieties  grown  in  the  state  and 
available  culls  are  chiefly  of  these  varieties.  The  fruit  should  be 
firm  and  free  from  bruised  spots.     Tart  apples  are  to  be  preferred. 

Peeling. — The  hand-power  peeling  and  coring  machine  used  in 
preparing  apples  for  drying  can  be  used  if  the  blade  that  cuts  the 
apple  into  thin  discs  is  removed.  The  peeled  and  cored  fruit  is 
quartered  and  placed  at  once  in  jars  or  cans.  From  20  to  40  per 
cent  of  the  fruit  is  removed  as  peeling  and  cores.  These  can  be  used 
as  jelly  material. 

Grading. — Two  grades  are  made,  the  perfect  quarters  of  good 
size  comprising  the  first  grade,  and  the  small  and  imperfect  quarters 
the  second. 

Syruping — Cans  of  fruit  are  filled  at  once  with  boiling  water. 
Jars,  to  avoid  breakage,  are  filled  with  water  at  150°  F.  No  sugar 
is  used  with  canned  apples  ordinarily,  because  they  are  usually  made 
into  pies  before  eaten. 

Capping  and  Tipping. — Put  the  cap  in  place  and  seal  with  the 
capping  steel,  then  "tip"  at  once  as  directed  on  page  13.  If  the  cans 
have  been  filled  with  hot  water,  no  exhausting  is  necessary. 

Processing  or  Sterilizing  in  cans. — Place  the  cans  in  the  sterilizer 
of  boiling  water.  If  No.  3  cans  are  used,  keep  in  boiling  water  12 
to  15  minutes,  according  to  the  ripeness  and  softness  of  the  fruit. 
If  No.  10  cans  are  used,  15  to  18  minutes  are  necessary.  The  same 
times  are  sufficient  where  the  heating  is  done  by  steam  in  a  closely 
covered  boiler,  where  no  steam  pressure  is  developed. 

It  will  be  found  convenient  to  have  a  number  of  crates  made  of 
heavy  wire  screen  reinforced  with  iron  straps  to  fit  the  sterilizer, 
to  hold  the  cans  during  sterilizing.  One  of  these  can  be  filled  while 
a  full  one  is  in  the  heater. 

Cooling. — As  soon  as  sterilization  is  complete,  remove  the  cans  and 
cool  in  a  tub  or  tank  of  cold  Avater  to  stop  further  cooking.  If  the 
screen  crates  mentioned  above  are  used,  they  may  be  lifted  from  the 
sterilizer  with  the  cans  and  the  whole  plunged  into  cold  water. 

Marking. — Some  sort  of  an  identifying  mark  should  be  placed  on 
the  cans  with  canners'  ink  before  or  with  special  pencils  immediately 


20 

after  sterilizing  and  cooling.  Some  such  mark  as  A-l  for  first  grade, 
and  A-2  for  second  grade  on  the  bottom  of  the  cans  will  serve  to 
identify  them. 

Storage  and  Spoilage. — Before  any  canned  fruit  is  put  on  the 
market,  it  should  be  stored  at  least^  a  month  to  see  if  it  will  show  spoil- 
age. It  is  better  to  have  cans  spoil  in  the  store  room  than  on  the 
grocers'  shelves.  If  the  fire  used  to  heat  the  sterilizer  is  not  strong 
enough,  it  may  take  too  long  to  bring  the  cans  to  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water  and  the  ' '  germs ' '  that  cause  spoilage  may  not  be  killed. 
Usually,  however,  the  trouble  is  due  to  leaks  in  the  cans.  With  an 
inexperienced  operator,  leaks  often  occur  around  the  solder  groove 
of  the  cap.  When  the  capping  operation  is  well  done,  there  should 
be  very  few  leaks.  Leaks  can  be  detected  by  bubbles  appearing  when 
the  cans  are  dropped  into  hot  water.  Leaks  permit  air  to  get  in  and 
the  air  brings  with  it  " germs"  which  cause  the  fruit  to  ferment  and 
produce  the  gas  that  causes  the  cans  to  swell.  There  should  be  little 
spoilage  with  apples,  as  they  are  easily  sterilized. 

Sterilizing  in  jars. — Prepare  as  for  cans.  The  peeled,  cored  and 
quartered  fruit  is  placed  in  the  jars  which  are  then  filled  with  boiling 
water  to  about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  of  the  top.  Put  the  rubbers 
in  place  and  cover  loosely  with  the  caps.  Rubbers  should  be  boiled 
in  water  with  one  teaspoonful  of  baking  soda  per  quart  for  at  least 
one  hour  and  then  soaked  for  one  hour  in  plain  water  before  using. 
Otherwise  a  "rubber  taste"  may  be  given. 

The  jars  are  then  placed  in  the  sterilizer  containing  water  near 
the  boiling  point.  The  water  should  come  to  about  one-half  the  height 
of  the  jars  and  there  should  be  a  grating  or  screen  between  bottoms 
of  the  jars  and  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.'  A  slat  grating  may  be  placed 
on  top  of  the  first  tier  of  jars  and  another  tier  placed  on  top  of  this. 

The  cover  of  the  cooker  should  fit  tight  and  the  water  be  boiled  as 
quickly  as  possible.  After  boiling  rapidly  for  twenty  minutes,  remove 
the  jars  and  screw  or  clamp  the  caps  down  tight  while  the  jars  are 
still  very  hot.  Then  stand  the  jars  upside  down  to  cool  in  a  quiet 
place  free  from  draughts. 

Apples  in  Syrup. — Apples  to  be  used  as  dessert  for  home  use  may 
be  canned  in  a  heavy  syrup.  A  50  per  cent  syrup  is  used,  made  by 
dissolving  one  pound  of  sugar  in  each  pint  of  water.  It  should  be 
fairly  clear.  The  peeled,  cored  and  quartered  apples  are  placed  in 
the  syrup  and  boiled  slowly  in  a  covered  pot  until  they  are  cooked 
sufficiently.  This  is  when  they  are  still  firm,  but  not  hard.  They 
should  be  more  or  less  transparent. 


21 

The  fruit  and  syrup  are  then  transferred  to  cans  or  to  jars  first 
heated  in  water.  The  cans  and  jars  are  then  closed  and  sterilized, 
as  above,  except  that  sterilization  for  5  minutes  is  sufficient. 

Apples  in  Boiled  Cider. — Instead  of  sugar  syrup,  "boiled  cider" 
may  be  used.  This  is  prepared  by  boiling  down  apple  juice  until  it 
is  reduced  in  the  proportion  of  five  gallons  of  fresh  juice  to  one  gallon 
of  boiled  cider  or  syrup.  All  the  operations  of  canning  are  the  same 
as  with  sugar  syrup. 

Pears. — The  Bartlett  is  the  best  variety  for  canning  purposes. 
It  should  be  of  good  size  and  prime  ripe,  but  not  too  soft.  The  fruit 
is  peeled  by  hand  and  cored  by  the  coring  knife  shown  on  page  — . 

Grade  into  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy  and  Pie  grades  after  peeling. 
Cover  with  hot,  50  per  cent,  30  per  cent  syrups  and  water,  respectively. 
As  pears  tend  to  turn  brown  rapidly  after  peeling,  they  should 
be  placed  in  the  can  with  syrup  as  soon  as  peeled  or  should  be  kept 
under  water  after  peeling  until  used.  As  soon  as  the  cans  are  filled 
with  hot  syrup,  cap  them  and  tip.  Sterilize  No.  2y2  or  No.  3  cans 
in  boiling  water  or  steam  at  212°  F.  for  20  minutes.  If  sterilized  in 
glass,  proceed  as  with  apples,  but  sterilize  for  30  minutes  after  the 
water  reaches  the  boiling  point. 

Peaches. — For  canning,  peaches  must  have  a  good  flavor  which 
remains  after  heating ;  the  texture  must  be  close  and  the  fiber  tender ; 
the  color  should  be  even  and  the  ripening  uniform  from  surface  to 
pit.  Of  the  cling  varieties,  the  Tuscan  and  Phillips  are  very  satis- 
factory and  of  the  freestone,  the  Muir  and  Crawford  are  preferred. 

Fruit  for  canning  must  be  thoroughly  ripe  in  order  that  the  best 
flavor  may  be  obtained.  It  may  be  graded  into  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy 
and  Pie  fruit  before  peeling. 

Peaches  are  easily  hand-peeled  by  the  use  of  the  peeling  knife 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  Freestones  are  easily  pitted  by  cutting  in  half. 
Cling  stones  are  pitted  after  peeling  by  inserting  a  pitting  spoon 
from  the  stem  end,  and  rotating  it  close  to  the  pit.  This  cuts  the  pit 
loose  from  the  fruit.  The  fruit  is  then  cut  in  half.  The  pitting  spoon 
is  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Place  in  jars  or  cans  and  cover  the  Extra  Fancy  with  a  hot  60 
per  cent  syrup,  the  Fancy  with  a  hot  40  per  cent  syrup,  and  the 
Pie  Fruit  with  water.     Then  cap  and  tip. 

Freestone  peaches  require  a  shorter  time  of  cooking  than  cling- 
stones owing  to  the  firmness  of  the  latter.  Sterilize  clings  in  No. 
2i/2  or  No.  3  cans,  twenty  minutes  at  212°  F.,  and  freestone  peaches 
fifteen  minutes  at  212°  F.  Gallon  cans  will  require  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  minutes.     Cool  the  cans  in  cold  water  immediately  after  steril- 


22 


izing.  As  peaches  vary  greatly  in  texture,  the  times  given  above 
are  only  approximate  and  must  be  varied  according  to  the  judgment 
of  the  canner.  It  is  advisable  to  run  a  few  trial  sterilizations  on 
one-can  lots  to  determine  the  exact  time  necessary  to  give  the  desired 
texture  to  the  finished  fruit. 

In  quart  or  pint  jars,  Clings  should  be  sterilized  thirty  minutes 
or  longer  at  212°  F.  and  freestones  twenty-five  minutes.  It  is  also 
recommended  that  tests  be  made  on  one- jar  lots  to  determine  the 
exact  time  necessary  to  give  the  best  results.  Peaches  in  jars,  if 
for  the  market,  should  be  made  attractive  by  careful  arrangement. 


Fig.  9. — Funnel  for  filling  fruit  and  syrup  into  jars  or  cans. 


Vertical  rows  may  be  built  up  in  the  jars  if  the  halves  are  not  too 
large.  Peaches  are  the  most  popular  of  any  of  the  fruits  canned. 
If  carefully  selected,  graded  and  canned  in  a  heavy  syrup,  and  attrac- 
tively labeled,  there  should  be  little  difficulty  in  disposing  of  them 
at  a  profit. 

Commercially,  peaches  are  peeled  by  dipping  in  lye  to  soften  the 
skins  and  then  removing  the  skins  by  a  strong  spray  of  water.  This 
method  is  not  recommended  for  home  canning,  because  the  machinery 
required  is  too  elaborate  for  small  scale  work. 

Apricots. — Apricots  for  canning  should  be  ripe  and  well  colored, 
but  not  too  soft.  Many  canners  make  the  mistake  of  canning  apricots 
too  green.  The  canned  product  from  such  fruit  has  a  ''green" 
astringent  taste  that  no  amount  of  sugar  can  wholly  overcome.     If 


23 

over-ripe,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fruit  cooks  down  to  a  jam  of  un- 
attractive appearance. 

Grading. — The  fruit  should  be  sorted  into  three  grades  before 
pitting.  These  grades  are  Extra  Fancy,  consisting  of  full  sized,  prime 
ripe,  well  colored  fruit;  Fancy,  consisting  of  sound  fruit  of  fairly 
uniform  and  medium  size,  which  may  be  a  little  too  ripe  or  a  little 
too  immature  to  go  into  the  Extra  Fancy  grade  or  which  may  have 
slight  blemishes  due  to  scab,  etc. ;  and  a  third  grade,  known  as  Pie 
Stock,  which  would  include  soft  over-ripe,  small,  immature  and  badly 
blemished,  though  sound,  fruit. 

Filling  the  Cans  or  Jars. — The  fruit  should  be  pitted  immediately 
after  grading.  To  remove  the  pits  the  apricots  are  cut  in  half  with 
a  fruit-cutting  knife.  The  halved  fruits  are  at  once  thoroughly  washed 
in  clean  cold  water  to  remove  dust  and  dirt.  They  are  then  packed  into 
enameled  or  lacquered  cans  or  glass  jars  The  fruit  should  be  packed 
uniformly  and  the  cans  filled  full,  but  not  overfull.  Jars  for  market 
should  be  packed  only  with  the  extra  fancy  fruit  which  should  be 
arranged  in  perfectly  straight  vertical  rows  in  halves  of  uniform 
size  and  color  one  above  the  other.  Jars  packed  in  this  way  are  very 
attractive. 

Addition  of  Syrup. — Apricots  require  a  heavy  syrup  to  bring  out 
their  best  flavor.  For  the. Extra  Fancy  use  a  syrup  of  60  per  cent 
sugar  (60°  Brix  or  Balling  =  321/2°  Baume)  ;  for  the  Fancy  grade  a 
40  per  cent  syrup,  and  for  the  Pie  grade  only  pure  water. 

Sterilizing  in  Cans  and  Jars. — Sterilization  is  conducted  exactly 
as  with  apples  (see  page  19)  except  that  a  little  longer  heating  is 
needed.  The  time  of  heating  in  the  boiler  depends  on  the  size  of  the 
cans.  For  No.  1  and  No.  2  eight  minutes  after  the  water  boils  is 
sufficient;  for  No.  2%  and  No.  3,  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  while  No.  8 
and  No.  10  cans  require  twenty  to  twenty-five  minutes.  Jars  are 
heated  for  thirty  minutes  in  boiling  water. 

Cooling. — The  cans  are  cooled  in  water  and  the  jars  in  the  air  while 
standing  upside  down,  exactly  as  with  apples.  Quick  cooling  prevents 
overcooking  and  injury  to  the  flavor. 

Sterilizing  at  lower  temperatures. — The  apricots  are  prepared  in 
the  way  described  and  put  in  cans  with  a  50  per  cent  syrup  heated 
to  165°  F.  The  temperature  must  be  verified  with  an  accurate  ther- 
mometer. The  cans  are  sealed  and  tipped  in  the  usual  way  and  then 
immersed  in  a  pot  or  boiler  of  water  kept  exactly  at  175°  F.  No.  2 
cans  must  be  kept  at  this  temperature  for  fifteen  minutes,  No.  2V>  and 
No.  3  for  twenty  minutes.  The  temperature  must  be  closely  watched 
by  means  of  a  thermometer  kept  constantly  in  the  water.     If  the  tern- 


24 

perature  falls  on  inserting  the  cans  the  time  is  counted  only  after  it 
reaches  175°  F.  The  cans  on  removal  are  not  cooled  in  water.  Left 
in  the  air  they  cool  slowly  and  complete  the  sterilization. 

Apricots  put  up  in  this  way  have  more  of  the  fresh  apricot  flavor 
than  when  sterilized  at  212°  F. 

Plums. — This  fruit  is  canned  whole  in  glass  or  in  enamel-lined 
cans.     On  account  of  the  high  acidity,  it  is  unsafe  to  use  plain  tin. 

The  fruit  should  be  picked  when  it  is  beginning  to  turn  soft.  If 
too  ripe,  it  will  cook  down  to  a  jam  in  the  can  and  if  too  green  will  be 
too  sour  and  lacking  flavor. 

Wash  the  fruit  and  grade  into  Extra  Fancy,  Fancy  and  Pie 
grades,  the  grading  being  made  on  appearance,  size  and  degree  of 
ripeness.  The  prime  ripe,  large  fruit  of  unblemished  appearance 
should  comprise  the  Extra  Fancy  grade;  the  medium-sized  sound 
and  prime  ripe  fruit,  the  Fancy  grade ;  and  the  soft,  small  and  blem- 
ished fruit,  the  Pie  grade.  Fill  the  cans  full  and  cover  the  Extra 
Fancy  grade  with  a  hot  50  per  cent  syrup,  the  Fancy  grade  with 
hot  40  per  cent  syrup,  and  the  Pie  stock  with  hot  water.  Cap,  tip  and 
sterilize  at  212°  F.  for  eight  minutes  in  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans  if  the 
fruit  is  soft ;  if  firm,  cook  12  minutes.  Gallon  cans  must  be  cooked 
twenty-five  minutes  because  of  their  larger  size.  Chill  the  cans  in 
cold  water  after  cooking. 

If  sterilized  in  glass,  proceed  as  for  apricots,  except  that  the 
plums  are  not  pitted  before  placing  in  the  jars.  The  Green  Gage 
and  Egg  plums  are  the  varieties  most  used. 

Prunes. — Prunes  are  not  canned  commercially,  but  are  perhaps  preferable  to 
dried  prunes  for  home  use.  Select  well  colored  ripe  prunes  of  large  size.  Wash 
and  place  in  cans.  Cover  with  a  hot  40  per  cent  syrup.  Cap  and  tip.  Process 
at  212°  F.  for  twelve  minutes  for  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans.  Chill  in  cold  water  after 
sterilizing. 

In  jars  they  are  covered  with  a  40  per  cent  syrup  at  212°  F.  and  sterilized 
by  placing  in  water  at  175°  F.;  heating  to  212°  F.  and  boiling  for  twenty 
minutes  in  the  usual  way  as  described  for  apricots. 

Cherries. — Cherries  canned  without  pitting  develop  a  ' '  bitter  almond ' '  or 
"pit"  flavor,  pleasing  to  some  and  disagreeable  to  others,  although  the  pitted 
cherries  are  probably  most  in  demand.  Small  hand-pitting  machines  can  be 
obtained  from  any  hardware  store  for  a  small  price.  All  pitting  machines  re- 
move the  pits  by  means  of  a  cross-shaped  plunger  which  lacerates  the  flesh  more 
or  less,  and  therefore  the  fruit  must  be  canned  immediately  after  pitting  to 
check  spoiling  by  fermentation.  The  Eoyal  Anne,  a  large  white  cherry,  is  seldom 
pitted.  Cherries  tend  to  shrivel  in  heavy  syrups  or  if  covered  with  hot  syrups, 
Only  moderately  sweet  syrups  should  be  used  therefore  and  the  cans  exhausted 
by  heating  before  sealing,  rather  than  by  adding  hot  syrup. 


25 

Grade  the  cherries  into  extra  fancy,  fancy,  and  jne  grades.  Wash  thoroughly 
in  cold  water.  Pit  if  desired.  Fill  into  cans  or  jars  and  add  a  cold  40  per  cent 
syrup  to  the  extra  fancy  grade,  a  30  per  cent  to  the  fancy,  and  water  to  the 
pie  stock.  Cap.  Exhaust  cans  in  water  at  150°  F.  for  fifteen  to  twenty  minutes 
(see  p.  15)  and  tip  the  ventholes.  Sterilize  No.  2%  or  No.  3  cans  in  boiling 
water  or  steam  at  212°  F.  for  eighteen  to  twenty  minutes;  No.  2  cans,  fifteen 
minutes;  and  gallon  cans  for  thirty  minutes.  Sterilize  jars  as  directed  for 
apples  for  thirty  to  thirty-five  minutes  at  212°  F. 

Blackberries. — Sort  into  three  grades,  making  an  extra  fancy  grade  of  the 
largest  prime  ripe  fruit,  fancy  of  medium-sized  firm  fruit,  and  a  pie  grade  of 
the  soft,  small,  or  under-ripe  fruit.  Wash  and  fill  into  enamel-lined  cans  or 
glass  jars.  Fill  the  extra  fancy  cans  or  jars  with  cold  syrup  of  60°  Balling, 
the  fancy  with  50  per  cent  syrup,  and  the  pie  grade  with  hot  water.  See  pages 
15,  16  for  preparation  and  testing  of  syrups.  Hot  syrups  should  not  be  used, 
as  they  will  cause  shriveling. 

Cap  the  cans  and  exhaust  by  placing  in  boiling  hot  water  for  five  minutes. 
Remove  and  tip  the  ventholes  and  return  to  the  boiling  water.  No.  2y2  or  No.  3 
cans  are  kept  for  twelve  minutes  at  the  boiling  point  of  water;  No.  2  cans,  eight 
minutes;  and  No.  10  (gallon),  twenty-five  minutes.  Chill  the  cans  in  cold 
water  after  cooking. 

Jars  should  be  cooked  for  thirty  minutes  at  212°  F.  as  directed  for  apples. 

Alternative  Method  for  Blackberries. — Blackberries  shrink  during  cooking  and 
the  fruit  which  fills  a  can  when  fresh  will  shrink  to  about  two-thirds  after 
sterilizing.  If  the  cans  are  to  be  well  filled,  the  blackberries  must  first  be 
cooked  slowly  in  the  syrup  for  fifteen  minutes,  so  that  the  shrinkage  will  take 
place  before  canning. 

The  fruit  is  then  filled  into  the  cans  or  jars  hot,  and  after  sealing,  sterilized 
for  only  five  minutes  at  212°  F.  Jars  require  ten  minutes.  The  extra  syrup 
formed  by  the  juice  of  the  fruit  can  be  used  on  the  next  lot  or  the  excess 
moisture  may  be  boiled  off  and  the  fruit  made  into  a  preserve  before  canning. 

Loganberries. — Loganberries  may  be  canned  in  practically  the  same  way  as 
recommended  for  strawberries.     Lacquered  cans  or  glass  jars  must  be  used. 

Raspberries. — Raspberries  shrink  very  greatly  on  cooking,  so  that  a  can  filled 
with  the  fresh  berries,  sealed  and  sterilized,  will  show  a  considerable  loss  in 
volume  of  solid  fruit  on  opening.  To  avoid  this  shrinkage  in  the  can,  the  fruit 
must  be  cooked  before  the  cans  are  filled. 

Sort  out  defective  berries  and  wash.  Transfer  to  a  kettle  and  add  an  equal 
volume  of  sugar.  Cook  slowly  until  the  fruit  has  reached  the  desired  consist- 
ency. If  the  syrup  is  tested  at  this  point  by  a  saccharometer  it  should  test 
about  50°  to  55°  Balling.  Fill  into  cans  or  jars  hot.  Cap  and  tip.  Sterilize  at 
212°  F.;  five  minutes  for  cans  and  ten  minutes  for  jars. 

If  there  is  no  objection  to  shrinkage  of  volume  in  the  can,  the  berries  may 
be  covered  with  a  hot  50  per  cent  syrup  and  sterilized  for  ten  minutes  at  212°  F. 
for  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans,  or  for  twenty  minutes  for  glass  jars. 

If  the  berries  are  to  be  used  only  for  pies,  they  may  be  filled  into  cans  with 
hot  water  and  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans  sterilized  at  212°  F.  for  ten  minutes  and 
gallon  cans  twenty  minutes. 

Strawberries. — These  berries  shrink  very  badly  in  volume  if  cooked  in  the  can. 

Grade  the  berries  into  extra  fancy  and  pie  grades.  Stem  and  wash  thoroughly. 
Place  the  extra  fancy  berries  in  the  kettle  and  add  an  equal  volume  of  sugar. 


2G 

Cook  down  slowly  until  the  syrup  will  test  50°  to  55°  Balling.  Drain  off  excess 
syrup  and  fill  into  cans  hot.  Can,  tip  and  sterilize  at  212°  F.  for  five  minutes 
for  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans.  Glass  jars  may  be  filled  hot  and  sterilized  in  boiling 
water  for  ten  minutes. 

The  pie  grade  can  be  placed  in  cans,  covered  with  hot  water  and  sterilized 
for  ten  minutes  at  212°  F.  for  No.  2  or  No.  3  cans  or  twenty  minutes  for 
gallon  cans. 

Currants,  Cranberries,  Gooseberries. — These  fruits  are  used  only  for  pies,  jellies, 
and  jams,  and  are  not  commonly  canned.  They  may  be  put  up  in  enameled  cans 
or  in  jars  in  plain  water  and  sterilized  at  212°  F.  No  syrup  need  be  used,  as 
it  will  be  found  more  satisfactory  to  add  the  desired  sugar  when  using  the  fruit 
later  for  pies,  etc. 

The  fruit  should  be  washed,  placed  in  cans  or  jars,  which  are  then  filled 
with  boiling  water,  sealed  and  sterilized  at  212°  F.  for  fifteen  minutes.  Jars 
should  be  filled  with  hot  water  at  about  212°  F.  and  sterilized  at  212°  for 
twenty-five  minutes,  as  directed  for  apricots,  pages  22  and  23. 

Grapes. — Muscat  grapes  are  canned  commercially  in  considerable  quantities 
in  California  and  are  used  chiefly  for  pies.  Thoroughly  ripe  Muscats  are  re- 
moved from  the  stems  and  graded  for  size  and  appearance.  Only  two  grades 
need  be  made,  the  large  unblemished  berries  for  the  extra  fancy  and  the  small 
and  imperfect  berries  for  the  pie  grade. 

Fill  the  cans  to  the  top  and  add  a  hot  40  per  cent  syrup  to  the  extra  fancy 
and  plain  hot  water  to  the  pie  fruit.  Cap  and  tip  in  the  usual  way.  Cook  No. 
2y2  or  No.  3  cans  for  ten  minutes  at  212°  F.  and  smaller  cans  for  eight  minutes 
in  boiling  water. 

The  fruit  may  be  packed  in  quart  or  pint  jars  and  sterilized  in  the  usual  way 
for  twenty  minutes  at  212°  F. 

Figs. — Figs  are  usually  put  in  glass  in  the  form  of  preserves.  The  fruit 
should  be  allowed  to  ripen  thoroughly  on  the  tree  and  must  be  handled  care- 
fully during  picking  and  transferring  to  the  cannery. 

In  commercial  manufacture  of  fig  preserves,  the  fruit  is  peeled  by  a  dip  of 
hot  lye,  followed  by  washing  under  a  vigorous  spray  of  water,  in  the  same  way 
as  with  peaches  (see  p.  22).  They  are  then  placed  in  steam-jacketed  kettles 
with  an  equal  weight  of  sugar,  boiled  down  to  a  preserve,  packed  hot  in  glass 
and  sealed  without  further  sterilization. 

For  home  use,  ripe  figs  may  be  used  without  peeling.  After  cutting  the 
stems,  the  fruit  is  weighed  and  placed  in  a  preserve  kettle  or  stewpan.  For  each 
pound  of  fruit,  one  pound  of  sugar  is  added  and  enough  water  to  prevent 
scorching.  Boil  down  slowly  until  the  hot  syrup  will  test  60°  Balling  or  33° 
Baume,  or  until  the  mixture  reaches  a  boiling  point  8°  above  the  boiling  point 
of  water,  which  is  for  most  localities  220°  F.,  or  until  the  fruit  is  well  cooked 
and  of  a  consistency  of  a  heavy  preserve.  Jars,  with  their  caps  and  rubbers, 
are  sterilized  by  heating  in  boiling  water.  They  are  then  filled  with  the  boiling 
hot  preserve  and  the  caps  screwed  down  at  once.  As  soon  as  filled  the  jars 
should  be  placed  on  their  sides  and  turned  occasionally  during  cooling  to  insure 
that  the  whole  interior  of  the  jar  is  sterilized  with  the  hot  fruit.  Fruit  pre- 
serves will  not  ferment  if  the  sugar  content  is  high  enough,  but  may  mold  if  the 
jars  and  contents  are  not  thoroughly  sterilized. 

Smyrna  figs  have  a  thicker  skin  than  the  Mission,  and  therefore  are  better 
if  peeled  before  cooking.  If  thoroughly  ripe,  this  may  be  done  by  hand,  but  it 
adds  greatly  to  the  labor  and  expense  of  preparation. 


27 

Rhubarb. — From  a  culinary  point  of  view,  rhubarb  is  a  fruit  and  is  very 
easily  sterilized  and  canned  in  the  same  general  way  as  other  fruits.  Since  it 
is  used  chiefly  as  a  pie  stock  no  sugar  need  be  used. 

Wash  the  stalks;  cut  into  short  lengths  and  fill  into  enamel-lined  cans  or 
glass  jars.  Cover  with  hot  water  and  seal.  Sterilize  cans  twelve  minutes  at 
212°  F.  and  jars  twenty  minutes  at  212°  F.  The  rhubarb  shrinks  during  steril- 
ization, and  in  order  to  get  a  fuller  can  or  jar  it  should  be  boiled  a  few  minutes 
before  canning. 

Plain  tin  cans  are  soon  badly  corroded  by  rhubarb  and  preferably  only 
glass  should  be  used. 

Pineapple. — Canned  pineapples  can  be  bought  at  such  a  moderate  price  that 
it  will  not  pay  to  buy  fresh  fruit  in  the  California  markets  for  canning. 

Oranges. — Oranges  must  be  sterilized  in  a  heavy  syrup  and  at  a  moderate 
temperature  to  be  palatable.  The  fruit  must  be  ripe  or  almost  over-ripe  in 
order  that  it  will  not  turn  bitter. 

Thoroughly  ripe,  sweet  oranges  are  peeled,  cut  into  slices  of  about  half  an 
inch  in  thickness  and  placed  in  enamel-lined  cans  or  glass  jars.  They  are  then 
covered  with  a  60  per  cent  syrup,  heated  to  150°  F.  and  then  cans  or  jars 
sealed.  After  sealing  these  are  completely  immersed  in  water  at  150°  F.,  which 
U  gradually  heated  to  175°  F.  Cans  are  kept  at  this  temperature  for  fifteen 
minutes  and  jars  for  twenty  minutes.  Remove  and  allow  to  cool;  do  not  cool 
in  cold  water. 

Fruit  prepared  in  this  way  will  for  a  time  be  delicious,  but  will  gradually 
deteriorate  in  flavor  after  three  or  four  months. 

Ripe  Olives. — The  canning  of  ripe  olives  for  market  would  require  a  more 
extended  discussion  than  could  be  given  here.  The  following  method  of  pickling 
and  canning  is  suited  for  home  use,  particularly  for  the  Mission  and  Manzanillo 
varieties. 

Select  large,  ripe,  well-colored  fruit.  Prepare  a  lye  solution  consisting  of 
four  ounces  of  lye  to  each  gallon  of  water.  Treat  the  olives  with  this  in 
earthenware  crocks  and  leave  until  the  lye  has  well  penetrated  through  the 
skin.  This  can  be  determined  by  cutting  an  olive  open  and  is  shown  by  a 
discoloration  of  the  flesh  beneath  the  skin.  Drain  off  the  lye  into  another 
container  and  leave  the  olives  exposed  to  the  air  for  twenty-four  hours.  This 
is  to  darken  the  color,  and  they  should  be  stirred  seven  or  eight  times  during 
the  process. 

Dilute  the  lye  solution  already  used  with  one  gallon  of  water  to  each  three 
gallons  of  lye  and  replace  on  the  olives.  Stir  often  and  watch  the  treatment 
until  the  lye  reaches  the  pit.  Then  remove  and  expose  the  olives  to  the  air 
again  for  eight  hours.  Cover  with  water  changed  twice  daily  until  all  taste  of 
lye  or  bitterness  is  removed.  Make  up  a  salt  brine  of  four  ounces  of  salt  to  the 
gallon  of  water.  Place  the  olives  in  this  for  three  days.  If  the  brine  darkens 
after  the  first  day  change  it  for  fresh  brine  of  the  same  strength. 

Place  the  olives  in  cans.  Fill  with  boiling  brine  of  four  ounces  of  salt  to 
the  gallon  of  water.  Cap  and  tip.  Heat  No.  2,  No.  21/£,  and  No.  3  cans  for 
thirty  minutes  at  212°  F.  and  gallons  for  forty  minutes.  Quart  or  pint  jars 
require  thirty-five  minutes  at  212°  F. 

If  prepared  for  market,  the  olives  should  be  graded  for  size  and  uniformity 
of  color  before  canning. 


28 


D.  SPECIAL  DIRECTIONS  FOR  VARIOUS  VEGETABLES 

Most  vegetables  have  only  a  small  amount  of  acid  as  compared  with  fruits. 
This  low  degree  of  acidity,  as  we  have  seen,  permits  the  growth  of  certain 
bacteria  which  are  very  difficult  to  kill  by  heating.  Vegetables  therefore  are 
hard  to  sterilize.  Tomatoes,  which  resemble  fruit  in  respect  to  their  acidity, 
are  an  exception. 

Usually  in  sterilizing  vegetables  temperatures  above  212°  F.  are  necessary, 
or  three  repeated  sterilizations  at  212°   F.     This  requires  either  the  use  of  a 


Fig.  10. — A  type  of  steam  pressure  sterilizer. 


steam-pressure  cooker  or  the  extra  trouble  of  making  three  practical  sterilizations. 
Steam-pressure  cookers  are  not  difficult  to  operate  and  can  be  obtained  at  prices 
as  low  as  ten  dollars  (see  p.  17).  Fractional  sterilization  is  accomplished  by 
heating  to  212°  F.  for  forty-five  minutes  on  each  of  three  successive  days  (see 
]).  4).     A  single  heating  of  three  hours  is  not  always  successful. 

The  new  method  described  on  page  4  avoids  both  the  expense  of  a  pressure 
cooker  and  the  trouble  of  repeated  heatings,  and  can  be  highly  recommended 
at  least  for  home  use.  It  consists  essentially  of  making  the  vegetables  slightly 
acid,  thus  rendering  them  as  easy  to  sterilize  as  fruits. 


29 

Artichokes. — Young  artichokes  only  are  used.  The  hard  tip  is  trimmed  off 
and  some  of  the  outer  bracts  removed,  leaving  only  the  tender  parts.  With 
wide-mouthed  jars  the  trimmed  artichokes  may  be  canned  whole;  with  solder- 
top  cans  the  artichokes  must  be  cut  into  vertical  sections. 

They  are  blanched  for  five  minutes  in  boiling  water  (see  p.  14),  placed  in 
cans  or  jars  and  covered  with  hot  2  per  cent  brine.  They  are  then  capped  and 
tipped  immediately  and  sterilized  in  a  steam  cooker  at  239°  F.,  or  ten  pounds 
pressure.  No.  2  and  No.  3  cans  require  twenty  minutes  and  jars  thirty.  Jars 
must  be  filled  with  boiling  hot  brine,  with  precautions  against  breaking,  and 
sealed  immediately  before  being  placed  in  the  cooker.  After  heating  for  the 
required  time  the  cooker  must  be  allowed  to  cool  until  the  pressure  falls  to  0 
before  opening. 

Where  a  steam  cooker  is  not  available,  three  heatings  of  one  hour  each  to 
212°  on  three  successive  days  may  be  used  (see  p.  4).  With  the  method  de- 
scribed on  page  4,  in  a  brine  of  2  per  cent  acidified  with  one-fourth  of  a  pint 
of  lemon  juice  per  gallon,  a  single  heating  for  forty-live  minutes  for  cans  and 
one  hour  for  jars  at  212°  F.  is  sufficient. 

Asparagus. — Grade  into  large,  medium,  and  small  sizes.  Commercial  ean- 
ners  make  five  sizes,  but  such  close  grading  is  not  necessary  in  home  canning. 
Cut  into  lengths  to  fit  the  container.  This  is  conveniently  done  by  making  a 
small  box  the  depth  of  the  can  or  jar  and  open  at  the  top  and  one  side.  The 
bud  ends  of  the  stalks  are  placed  in  the  box  against  the  closed  end  and  the  butts 
protrude  from  the  open  end.  They  may  be  cut  off  flush  with  the  edges  of  the 
open  side  of  the  box  with  a  large  sharp  knife. 

Blanch  the  stalks  in  boiling  water  for  about  one  minute  for  small  stalks  and 
two  or  four  minutes  for  the  larger  sizes.  Pack  into  jars  or  cans  with  the  tips 
up.  No.  2  tall  square  cans  are  most  commonly  used.  Cover  with  hot  2  per  cent 
brine  and  seal.  Sterilize  No.  2  tall  cans  fourteen  minutes  and  jars  twenty 
after  ten  pounds  pressure  (239°  F.)  is  reached.  Chill  the  cans  in  cold  water. 
If  jars  are  used  the  sterilizer  must  be  allowed  to  cool  to  0  pounds  pressure 
before  opening,  since  the  jars  will  explode  when  the  pressure  is  quickly  released. 

By  use  of  lemon  juice  (see  p.  4)  forty-five  minutes  for  cans  and  one  hour 
for  jars  at  212°  F.  is  sufficient.  Five  ounces  of  lemon  juice  is  added  to  each 
gallon  of  brine.  Three  fractional  sterilizations  of  one  hour  at  212°  F.  for  three 
successive  days  (see  p.  4)  can  also  be  used. 

Green  Beans. — Green  beans  are  best  for  canning  when  very  young  and  tender ; 
the  larger  and  harder  the  pods  and  beans  become,  the  lower  their  value  for 
canning.     Beans  are  usually  put  up  in  No.  2  cans. 

Grade  into  a  small  tender  size,  grade  No.  1,  a  medium  size,  grade  No.  2,  and 
a  large  size  as  grade  No.  3. 

Snip  or  string  after  grading.  The  two  larger  sizes  should  be  broken  into 
pieces  about  1%  inches  long,  while  the  small  or  No.  1  grade  may  be  canned 
whole. 

Blanch  the  No.  1  grade  two  minutes  in  boiling  water  and  the  larger  grades 
for  four  minutes.     Chill  in  cold  water  and  fill  into  cans  or  jars. 

Cover  with  2  per  cent  hot  brine  and  seal.  Sterilize  No.  2  cans  thirty  minutes 
at  ten  pounds  pressure  (239°  F.)  and  jars  forty  minutes  at  the  same  pressure. 

Green  beans  can  be  successfully  canned  by  fractional  sterilization  of  one 
hour  each  (see  p.  4)  or  in  the  lemon-juice  method  (see  p.  4)  in  thirty-five  minutes 


30 

for  cans  and  forty -five  minutes  for  jars.  In  this  method  use  one-fourth  pint 
of  lemon  juice  per  gallon  of  brine. 

Beets. — Beets  should  be  small  and  turnip  shaped  if  canned  for  market.  The 
extra  fancy  grade  may  be  1  to  iy2  inches  in  diameter  and  the  fancy  over 
\V>2  inches. 

Scald  in  .boiling  water  or  in  steam  until  the  skin  will  slip  easily.  Chill  in 
cold  water,  peel,  cut  off  the  tops  and  fill  into  cans  or  jars.  For  market  purposes 
jars  are  ordinarily  used. 

Prepare  a  brine  containing  2  per  cent  sugar  (or  2%  ounces  per  gallon)  and 
2y2  per  cent  salt  (3%  ounces  per  gallon  of  water).  Heat  to  boiling  and  fill 
cans.     Cap  and  tip.     Enamel-lined  cans  should  be  used. 

Sterilize  at  eight  pounds  pressure,  or  235°  F.,  for  thirty  minutes  for  cans 
and  forty  minutes  for  jars.     Chill  the  cans  after  cooking. 

With  the  lemon -juice  method  heating  to  212°  F.  for  one  hour  for  cans  and 
one  and  one-half  hours  for  jars  is  necessary.     (See  p.  4.) 

Three  fractional  sterilizations  for  one  hour  each  may  also  be  used. 

Carrots. — Carrots  can  be  prepared  for  the  can  by  washing,  scraping  and 
blanching  four  minutes  in  boiling  water.  Fill  into  cans  and  cover  with  hot 
brine  consisting  of  2  per  cent  salt  and  3  per  cent  sugar;  or  with  a  sauce  made 
to  taste  from  salt,  sugar,  butter,  and  water.  Seal.  Sterilize  at  ten  pounds 
pressure  for  thirty-five  minutes.  If  four  ounces  of  lemon  juice  is  added  to 
each  gallon  of  brine  the  carrots  may  be  sterilized  at  212°  F.  for  one  hour  or 
one  and  one-half  hours  in  jars.  If  lemon  juice  is  not  used,  one  hour  on  each 
of  three  successive  days  will  be  needed.     (See  p.  4.) 

Sweet  Corn. — The  ears  are  shucked,  silked,  and  the  corn  is  cut  from  the  cob 
with  a  sharp  knife.  A  syrup  of  one-half  pound  sugar  and  one  and  one-half 
ounces  salt  per  gallon  is  made.  The  corn  and  a  small  amount  of  syrup  (enough 
to  cover  the  corn)  are  mixed  and  heated  in  a  pot  to  boiling.  The  mixture  is 
filled  into  cans  or  jars  hot,  sealed  and  sterilized  for  fifty  minutes  at  fifteen 
pounds  pressure  or  250°  F.  Corn  is  very  hard  to  sterilize.  Cool  the  cans  after 
sterilizing. 

Corn  can  be  sterilized  at  212°  F.  for  one  and  one-half  hours  if  six  ounces 
of  lemon  juice  per  gallon  of  syrup  is  used. 

Peas. — Picking  and  hulling  peas  by  hand  is  a  very  slow  process  and  not  to 
be  recommended  for  commercial  canning.  Large  canneries  do  the  hulling, 
grading,  blanching,  and  filling  of  cans  entirely  by  machinery.  It  is  feasible, 
however,  to  shell  enough  peas  for  canning  for  home  use  by  hand. 

Select  as  tender  peas  as  possible  and  shell.  Place  in  a  wire  basket  or  in  a 
clean  cloth  and  blanch  in  boiling  water  long  enough  to  wrinkle  the  skin  slightly. 
This  will  usually  be  about  one  to  four  minutes,  depending  upon  the  size  and 
tenderness  of  the  peas. 

Fill  into  cans  or  jars  and  cover  with  a  hot  brine  consisting  of  2%  ounces 
salt  and  3^  ounces  of  sugar  per  gallon  and  seal.  Sterilize  cans  twenty-five 
minutes  at  240°  F.  or  ten  pounds  pressure,  and  jars  forty  minutes  at  the  same 
temperature.     Cool  cans  in  cold  water  after  sterilizing. 

Sterilization  of  Peas  at  212°  F. — To  the  above  brine  add  seven  ounces  of  lemon 
juice  per  gallon;  fill  into  containers  hot  and  seal.  Sterilize  cans  for  forty-five 
minutes  at  212°  F.  and  jars  sixty  minutes.  If  lemon  juice  is  not  used,  sterilize 
the  cans  or  jars  for  one  hour  each  day  for  three  successive  days. 


31 

Peppers,  Pimentos,  and  Chiles. — These  vegetables  are  usually  peeled  by  causiug 
the  skin  to  slip  by  roasting  or  immersing  in  hot  lye  solution  or  in  hot  oil.  The 
methods  are  hardly  applicable  to  household  use.  They  have  been  peeled  suc- 
cessfully in  the  laboratory  by  immersing  from  two  to  three  minutes  in  a  boiling 
lye  consisting  of  3  ounces  soda  lye  and  one  gallon  of  water.  They  were  then 
chilled  at  once  in  cold  water  and  the  skins  came  off  easily  from  the  large  sweet 
peppers  and  pimentos.  Small,  pungent,  tough-skinned  Mexican  peppers  did  not 
yield  to  this  treatment.  When  peeled  in  this  way,  the  peppers  are  obtained 
soft  and  pliable  and  can  be  folded  into  the  cans  after  cutting  off  stems  and 
removing  the  seed  cores. 

The  peppers  need  not  be  peeled  for  home  use  and  need  only  be  stemmed  and 
cored  and  heated  in  boiling  water  a  few  minutes  to  soften  them  so  that  they 
will  pack  into   cans   or  jars   satisfactorily. 

Fill  with  boiling  hot  water  and  seal.  Sterilize  at  212°  F.  for  eighteen 
minutes  in  cans  and  forty  minutes  in  jars.  Olive  or  salad  oil  may  be  used 
instead  of  water  to  fill  the  cans. 

Pumpkin. — Cut  open  the  pumpkin;  scrape  out  pulp  and  seeds  and  cut  the 
flesh  and  rind  into  strips.  Boil  in  water  until  soft.  Scrape  the  flesh  from  the 
rind  and. mash  the  pulp  through  a  colander  and  heat  almost  to  boiling  temper- 
ature in  a  double  boiler  or  in  a  steam  retort  to  avoid  scorching.  Pack  into  cans 
or  jars  hot  and  seal.  Sterilize  cans  one  hour  at  240°  F.  or  ten  pounds  pressure 
and  jars  one  and  one-half  hours  at  the  same  temperature. 

The  lemon-juice  method  can  be  used  as  follows: 

Cut  the  fresh  pumpkin  into  pieces  to  fit  into  cans  or  jars  and  fill  containers 
with  them.  Prepare  a  brine  containing  2%  ounces  of  salt  per  gallon  and  4 
ounces  of  lemon  juice  per  gallon.  Heat  to  boiling  and  fill  the  cans  or  jars  of 
pumpkin  with  the  hot  brine.  Seal.  Sterilize  cans  at  212°  F.  for  one  hour  and 
jars  one  and  one-half  hours.  Pumpkin  prepared  in  this  way  has  kept  perfectly 
and,  although  it  comes  from  the  can  rather  firm,  it  has  a  good  flavor  and 
appearance. 

Tomatoes. — Tomatoes  have  a  considerable  amount  of  acid  which  checks 
growth  of  heat-resisting  bacteria.    They  are  therefore  easily  sterilized  at  212°  F. 

For  canning  purposes,  the  variety  used  should  be  smooth  and  of  a  deep  color. 
Corrugated  tomatoes  are  too  difficult  to  peel. 

Sort  the  tomatoes  and  reject  those  which  are  spoiled  and  under-ripe.  Place 
in  blanching  basket  and  immerse  in  boiling  water  long  enough  to  crack  and 
loosen  the  skin.  This  will  usually  be  about  one-half  to  one  minute.  Remove 
and  chill  in  cold  water.  Slip  off  the  skins  and  remove  the  cores.  Heat  to 
boiling  in  the  juice  obtained  in  coring.  Pack  tightly  into  cans  or  jars  hot. 
Seal.  Sterilize  No.  3  cans  for  thirty  minutes  at  212°  F.  and  No.  10  cans  seventy- 
five  minutes  at  212°  F.  if  packed  hot. 

If  the  tomatoes  are  packed  without  the  addition  of  juice,  it  is  known  as  a 
solid  pack;  if  juice  is  added,  a  standard  pack. 

Tomatoes  may  be  canned  whole  to  be  used  for  slicing  for  salads.  Select 
small  tomatoes  that  will  go  into  the  jars  or  cans.  Cover  with  a  hot  tomato 
juice  pressed  from  mashed  fresh  tomatoes.  Seal.  Sterilize  cans  twenty  minutes 
at  212°  F.  and  jars  thirty  minutes. 


STATION  PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE  FOR  DISTRIBUTION 


REPORTS 

1897.      Resistant  Vines,   their  Selection,  Adaptation,   and  Grafting.     Appendix  to  Viticultural 
Report  for  1896. 

1902.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1898-1901. 

1903.  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for   1901-03. 

1904.  Twenty-second  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  for  1903-04. 

1914.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  the  Agricultural   Experiment   Station,   July, 

1913-June,   1914. 

1915.  Report  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and   the  Agricultural  Experiment   Station,   July 

1914-June,   1915. 


No. 

108. 

169. 

178. 
184. 

185. 

207. 
208. 
212. 
213. 
216. 


225. 
230. 
241. 
242. 
246. 
248. 

249. 
250. 
251. 


Observations  on  Some  Vine  Diseases 
in   Sonoma  County. 

Tolerance  of  the  Sugar  Beet  for  Alkali. 

Mosquito  Control. 

Report  of  the  Plant  Pathologist  to 
July   1,    1906. 

Report  of  Progress  in  Cereal  Investi- 
gations. 

The  Control  of  the  Argentine  Ant. 

The  Late  Blight  of  Celery. 

California   White  Wheats. 

The   Principles  of  Wine-making. 

A  Progress  Report  Upon  Soil  and  Cli- 
matic Factors  Influencing  the  Com- 
position of  Wheat. 

Tolerance  of  Eucalyptus  for  Alkali. 

Enological    Investigations. 

Vine  Pruning  in  California,  Part  I. 

Humus   in   California   Soils. 

Vine   Pruning  in    California,   Part  II. 

The  Economic  Value  of  Pacific  Coast 
Kelps. 

Stock-Poisoning  Plants  of  California. 

The  Loquat. 

Utilization  of  the  Nitrogen  and  Organic 
Matter  in  Septic  and  Imhoff  Tank 
Sludges. 


BULLETINS 

No. 
252. 
253. 


254. 
255. 
256. 
257. 
261. 

262. 

263. 
265. 
266. 

267. 
268. 
269. 

270. 


271. 
272. 
273! 

274. 


Deterioration  of  Lumber. 

Irrigation  and  Soil  Conditions  in  the 
Sierra    Nevada   Foothills,    California. 

The  Avocado  in  California. 

The  Citricola  Scale. 

Value  of  Barley  for  Cows  Fed  Alfalfa. 

New  Dosage  Tables. 

Melaxuma  of  the  Walnut,  "Juglans 
regia." 

Citrus  Diseases  of  Florida  and  Cuba 
Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

Size  Grade  for  Ripe  Olives. 

Cottony  Rot  of  Lemons  in  California. 

A  Spotting  of  Citrus  Fruits  Due  to  the 
Action  of  Oil  Liberated  from  the  Rind. 

Experiments  with  Stocks  for  Citrus. 

Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 

Phenolic    Insecticides   and    Fungicides. 

A  Comparison  of  Annual  Cropping,  Bi- 
ennial Cropping,  and  Green  Manures 
on  the  Yield  of  Wheat. 

Feeding  Dairy  Calves  in  California. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. 

Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard Experimental  Drain. 

The  Common  Honey  Bee  as  an  Agent 
in  Prune  Pollination. 


CIRCULARS 

No.  No. 

65.   The  California   Insecticide  Law.  136. 

69.  The   Extermination    of   Morning-Glory.  137. 

70.  Observations    on    the    Status    of    Corn  138. 

Growing  in    California.  139. 
76.   Hot   Room   Callusing. 
82.   The     Common     Ground     Squirrels     of 

California.  140. 

107.  Spraying  Walmit  Trees  for  Blight  and 

Aphis    Control. 

108.  Grape  Juice.  141. 

109.  Communit-   or   Local   Extension   Work 

by  the  High  School  Agricultural  De-  142. 
partment. 

113.  Correspondence  Courses  in  Agriculture.  143. 

114.  Increasing  the  Duty  of  Water. 

115.  Grafting  Vinifera  Vinevards.  144. 

117.  The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small  145. 

Pumping  Plant. 

118.  The  County  Farm  Bureau.  146. 

119.  Winerv  Directions. 

121.    Some    Things    the    Prospective    Settler  147. 

Should  Know.  148. 

124.   Alfalfa   Silage   for  Fattening  Steers.  149. 

126.  Spraying  for  the  Grape  Leaf  Hopper.  150. 

127.  House  Fumigation.  151. 

128.  Insecticide   Formulas.  152. 

129.  The  Control  of  Citrus  Insects. 

130.  Cabbage   Growing  in   California.  153. 

131.  Spraying  for  Control  of  Walnut  Aphis 

132.  When      to      Vaccinate      against      Hog  154- 

Cholera. 

133.  County   Farm   Adviser.  155- 

134.  Control   of  Raisin   Insects.  156- 

135.  Official  Tests  of  Dairy  Cows.  ir>7- 


Melilotus  Indica. 

Wood  Decay  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Silo  in  California  Agriculture. 

The  Generation  of  Hydrocyanic  Acid 
Gas  in  Fumigation  by  Portable  Ma- 
chines. 

The  Practical  Application  of  Improved 
Methods  of  Fermentation  in  Califor- 
nia Wineries  during  1913  and  1914. 

Standard  Insecticides  and  Fungicides 
versus   Secret  Preparations. 

Practical  and  Inexpensive  Poultry  Ap- 
pliances. 

Control  of  Grasshoppers  in  Imperial 
Valley. 

Oidium  or  Powdery  Mildew  of  the  Vine. 

Suggestions  to  Poultrymen  concerning 
Chicken  Pox. 

Jellies  and  Marmalades  from  Citrus 
Fruits. 

Tomato  Growing  in  California. 

"Lungworms." 

Lawn  Making  in  California 

Round  Worms  in  Poultry. 

Feeding  and  Management  of  Hogs. 

Some  Observations  on  the  Bulk  Hand 
ling  of  Grain  in  California. 

Announcement  of  the  California  State 
Dairy  Cow  Competition,   1916-18. 

Irrigation  Practice  in  Growing  Small 
Fruits  in   California. 

Bovine  Tuberculosis. 

How  to  Operate  an  Incubator. 

Control  of  Pear  Scab. 


